Written by Doç. Dr. Metin Saip Sürücüoğlu / Turkish Cultural Foundation

Introduction

In the late 13th century the Ottoman State, founded in northwestern Anatolia in the are of the Sakarya River and the valleys of its tributaries, developed rapidly and grew into a great empire. Taking the place of its predecessor the Byzantine Empire and wiping it from the map, the Ottomans became a great political presence as well as the most powerful representatives of the Islamic world. People from regions quite remote from each other, and from different ethnicities ad cultures were gathered together under a single political umbrella(1). Spreading over three continents, the Ottoman Empire thus blended with many different culture and as in every area, so in the areas of food and drink as well, found itself in cultural exchange with them in them.

Parallel to the development and growth of the Ottoman Empire, the cuisine of the palace also showed great development, and the gathering of high-ranking palace residents became one of the most important social activities of the period. This gave rise to the development of extremely rich and delicious dishes which displayed all the creativity and skill of the cooks(2). Sultans and state officials, in order to feed and hold feasts for foreign guests, ambassadors and other palace guests, had their cooks develop certain recipes. Of those working in the palace and mansions, the chefs were among the most beloved; French statesmen asked permission to retain the chefs which Sultan Abdülaziz took with him on his visit to Paris(3). During the rise of the Empire, the Ottomans added the cuisine of every area they conquered to their own cuisine(4). Thus the cuisine of the Ottoman palace and Istanbul in particular became even richer during this period, to reach its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries when the Empire was moving into faster decline(5).

The Organization of the Kitchen and Rules Concerning Food in the Palace Kitchens

Historians have classified the period from the establishment of the Empire until the end of the 16th century the “Classical Period;” the following period lasting until the  18th century the “Post-Classical Period,” and the 19th and 20th centuries, during which various experiments in modernization were undertaken, the “Final Period (1).” The historian Cevdet Paşa said, “If Istanbul had not been conquered, the Empire would not have attained this elevated power.” According to this him, Istanbul was in one of the most ideal geographical locations in the world, and it was natural that whatever state owned it would also have power over other nations. As Napoleon said, “If there were a single world government, its center should be Istanbul. (6).” Clearly, Istanbul has never lost its importance throughout history.

After Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Mehmet the Conqueror) took Istanbul and settled in Topkapı Palace, he also decreed the official etiquette and manners concerning food and eating. For this reason, the kitchen held an important place in palace life. Every day, Topkapı Palace produced food for 1,500-2,000 people, including servants, Janissaries, members of the Divan, civil servants, the Sultan and his family; and on feasts and other special days this number increased threefold(5).

Receptions and feasts given at the Divan for foreign ambassadors followed more or less the same protocol. Large silver trays bearing food brought by palace servants were placed on low tables and the guests ate in small groups. Information on this subject gained from foreign ambassadors and travelers as well as Ottoman sources show that Turkish society included an extremely rich culinary tradition and practice. In addition, weddings, military decorations and celebrations included some of the most brilliant pages of Ottoman history. With their ceremonies, guests, tributes, displays, and food and drink served, these celebrations were a cultural treasure.

This article will address subjects including the organization of the kitchen, rules for meals in the palace, the eating habits and etiquette of the sultans, the eating etiquette for paying of the ulufe (money paid to the Janissaries for fodder), receptions of ambassadors and foreign guests and meetings of the Divan; foods and customs at the palace during the month of Ramadan, and feasts given on the occasion of princes’ circumcisions and other celebrations.

Ottoman Palaces

The palace in which the sultan resided was generally referred to as the Saray_ı Humayun. The most famous of these is Topkapı Palace, today the Topkapı Palace Museum. In1640, Topkapı Palace was home to 40,000 people, but in 1478, during the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, only 726 people lived in the palace. In view of the numbers of people living their during the reigns of his successors, we must conclude that Sultan Mehmet’s reign was one of simplicity and frugality(8).

The first palace which Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror constructed after taking Istanbul was the Eski Saray, or “Old Palace.” Begun in 1454 and finished in 1457, this palace was where Beyazit University’s garden is today (8.9). Until the completion of this palace, Mehmet lived in the palace in Edirne. Later the old palace was set aside for the mothers of deceased or dethroned sultans, some of the old wives (cariyes) who had fallen from favor and the sisters of the sultan (8). Construction on the new palace (Topkapı) was begun in 1465, and the first stage of its construction was completed in 1478. The first palace to be built was the Çinili Köşk; the second was the Sırca palace. The Bab-ı Hümayun (1473) was completed only during the last years of Mehmet’s life. The Arz Odası, Divan and Has Oda were built during Mehmet’s reign; the Harem was constructed during later years (8). The Ottoman sultans lived in Topkapı Palace until 1873, when the Dolmabahçe palace was built (10). Thus until the reign of Sultan Abdülmecid, the heart of the Ottoman Empire was Topkapı Palace (3).

Ottoman palaces were generally divided into three sections, known as the Birun, Enderun and Mabeyn (10). The Enderun is the inner section of the palace; the Harem was located in this section. The Birun, known as the Mabeyn-i Hümayun after the Reformation period, consisted of the outer sections of the palace (7). The true name of the Harem is the Darüssaade’, which means “house of happiness.” Those entering from either of its two gates would come to the harem ağaları or harem lords, standing guard. The Ottoman harem was built around the apartment of the sultan and that of the Valide Sultan, his mother (10).

The third gate of Topkapı Palace, the Babüssade, was guarded by white eunuchs. Beyond the gate of the kuşhane, or private kitchen, the management of the harem was in the hands of black eunuch guards (10). Those working in the Palace would enter through the first gate of the Topkapı Palace, the Bab-ı Hümayun, no later than one hour after their dawn prayers (11).

The Babüs-selam is the middle gate of the palace, beyond this gate begins the second section of the palace, a 160x130 m rectangular area. As processions (alay) for bayram and other occasions were held here, it was also known as the Alay Meydanı, or “procession square.” At the right side of this area is the Matbah-ı Amire, or palace kitchen; and at the left were the royal stables (11).

Organization and Food Rules in the Palace Kitchens

The Ottoman palaces in Istanbul and Edirne contained two kitchens, the Matbah-ı Hümayun and the Matbah-ı Amire. The Matbah-ı Hümayun (Imperial Kitchen) was used only for the preparation for the sultan himself. At Topkapı Palace, this kitchen, also known as the kuşhane, was located within the Harem (13). The kitchens of the Palace made up a large and complex institution. The cooks preparing daily meals belonged to several separate classes. At the head of the list, overseeing the food cooked for the sultan, were the kuşçubaşlıs, and next in line were the has mutfak cooks, who cooked for the mother of the sultan as well as the residents of the harem. The third section was the Matbah-ı Amire, which prepared the food for those in the Enderun and the Birun, and anyone else who, for whatever reason, was eating within the palace. In addition to these were approximately 300 more cooks, referred to by their specialties such as tatlıcı (sweet maker), balıkçı (one who prepared fısh), hamurcu (who dealt with dough/baked goods) etc. (12).

The tatlıcıs, or sweet/dessert chefs, comprised a separate class within the palace chefs. This group, responsible for the preparation of halvah, macun (“pastes,”), syrups and other sweets, were known as the hevacıyan-hassa (royal halvah makers) (12). In their kitchen, the helvahâne, they produced sherbets, preserves and even fragrant soaps. The highest officer in the helvahâne was the helvacıbaşı (head halvah chef). Both Turkish and Western dishes were prepared for great feasts; and only during the late periods were pastries, cake and botansale brought in from outside. In addition to the other chefs at the palace were those whose only duty was to make pilaf (3).

Every section of the kitchen had an aşçıbaşı, or head chef, and the highest ranking of them was known as the baş aşçıbaşı or “head head chef.” All of the kitchen personnel worked under the Matbah Eminliği, or Kitchen Trust.

As we examine the ideal organization of a kitchen today, it is interesting to compare it to the Ottoman kitchen hierarchy during the 14th century. Just as in the Ottoman kitchen, we see a chain of command beginning from the Matbaa Eminliği (Kitchen management – head chef), the Üstüdan-ı Matbah-ı Amire (Subordinate chefs), Matbah-ı Has (Specialty chefs, meat chefs etc.) down to the Matbah-ı Has-şagirt (Apprentices). All apprentices, regardless of the sections in which they worked, fell within the Matbah-ı Has-şagirt category (4).

Following dawn prayers, the stoves, consisting of eight sections, were lit. On some days food was prepared for four to five thousand people (11). The palace personnel ate two meals a day prepared at the palace kitchens, and stayed in apartments within the palace (13).

In the Ottoman Empire, all kitchen accounts were kept in their own separate books (13). These records were kept from day to day in full detail, a book for each month, and contained whatever was eaten and drunk in the palace, what was bought, what was brought, and how much, as well as the bakery/oven costs (8). For example, every Sunday and Thursday, Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror, through the kiler emini (the person in charge of the pantry/provisions) distributed 150 akçe of bread to the poor, These alms were entered among the palace’s kitchen expenditures (8). In addition, traveling kitchen expenses incurred for official and pleasure trips taken by the sultan were recorded, as were provisions for the Harem and the Enderun.

An officer known as the pazarbaşı (market head) was responsible for acquiring the ingredients for the food to be cooked each day. Each head chef had 60 chefs and 200 assistants in his service. In addition there were people with specific charges: tatlıcıs, tavukcus, yoğurtçus, simitçis, meyvecis (responsible sweets, chicken, yogurt, simit [bread rings], fruit) etc. Food and bread was prepared before the noon prayer, and placed on trays according to where they would be sent, carried by the tablakâr (tray carriers) on their heads. Only the meals for the sultan were prepared in a separate kitchen known as the kuşhane (1).

The third in rank of the kitchen wards, the “cellar/pantry ward,” was established by Sultan Mehmet. The head of this ward was the kilerbaşı or pantry head. His task was to serve the foods prepared for the sultan in the proper way. The duties of the pantry ward staff was to prepare and store the foodstuffs and drink for the sultans and their mothers, the princes and princesses, the head wife and favorite wives, and to light the candles in the palace. After Dolmabahçe Palace was built and became the official residence of the sultans, Sultan Abdülmecid abolished the pantry ward and in its place, had the offices of the Hazine kethüdalığı  (Ministry of the Economy) built (14).

In the old days, two meals were customarily eaten at Ottoman palaces; one in late morning and an evening meal after the evening prayers (11). This tradition was a holdover from the time of Osman Gazi (1299-1324). Osman Gazi would sit to eat in his apartment following the evening prayer, along with however many people were in his apartment. Later, Murat II (1421-1451) established the protocol of ten people to a sofra (15). After the 16th century this custom was abandoned, and palace residents began eating three meals as in the west (11).

As the evening meal was eaten after the early evening prayer, a simple evening “breakfast” type meal called “yatsılık” was prepared for those who were hungry before bed time. This duty fell to the pantry kalfas (attendants), and consisted of foods such as Circassian chicken, haseki pilaf, ekmek paparası (a dish prepared with dry bread and broth) and “palace eggs” (an egg dish cooked with onions) (15).

These kalfas responsible for food service at the palace had from the early days eaten on a mat covered with a leather sofra. Later, during the reign of Mahmut II, they began sitting on low collapsible stools around a copper tray. These kalfas worked as various sorts of attendants; at doors, at the sultan’s hall, as laundry attendants. Each had a specific duty – food service, knocking the door to call the harem lords, sweeping, etc.

Wives at the palaces and mansions were also referred to as kalfas. Following their induction, novice wives would rise in rank and become a kalfa. According to their beauty and experience, these kalfas were sent to the apartments of the sultan, the wife of the sultan, the princes and the sultan’s favorite female servant. The kalfas were divided into three ranks according to their seniority – great, mid and small kalfa. The kalfa responsible for making the sultan’s coffee and caring for the coffee sets was the kahveci usta. The serving of coffee also was carried out with ceremony. The kahveci usta and her helpers bore a heavy work load, especially during the bayrams (the two main feasts of Islam, one following Ramadan and the other commemorating God’s provision of ram for Abraham to sacrifice in place of his son). Their chief duty was to quickly prepare and serve coffee to the wives and princesses coming for bayram visits (10).

The kalfa who oversaw the sultan’s pantries and pantry ware was known as the kilerci usta. She was assisted by a second kilerci and cariyes in her charge. All of the sherbets, fruits and nuts for the sultan were stored in his own pantry. The kilerci usta and çaşnigir usta served the sultan as he was eating (10).

Whatever the season, it was customary in the Ottoman palaces to have hoşaf (a thin compote) at the end of every meal. The hoşaf came to the meal in a copper tankard, and was drunk in the order of rank. First the most senior kalfa took the tankard by the handles and drank, followed by the second and third kalfas. This custom was known as the hoşaf nöbeti (hoşaf turns). It was considered bad manners to get up from the mal before drinking hoşaf. It was believed that the hoşaf nöbeti would only cease to be practiced as the Day of Judgment neared (15).

Though spoons were used for liquid foods such as soups and hoşafs and other sweets as well as for pilaf, forks and knives began to be used in the Ottoman palace only towards the end of the 19th century. Before their introduction, it was considered appropriate to eat with the three fingers of the right hand. Hand cloths were ready in case the fingertips became soiled. Towels called peşkir were draped over the knees during meals, and the meal service began. After the meal, hands were washed and dried, again in order of rank (5).

It was considered shameful and inconsistent with palace etiquette to slurp soup and drinks, chew with one’s mouth open, grind one’s teeth, wipe ones hands on the sofra, spread bread crumbs around and eat greedily (15). In addition, it was not well looked upon to dive into the food the moment it was brought, take from any part of a dish other directly in front of one, and spill or drip food onto the tray (5).

The trays of food were not completely eaten; they were not sent back to the kitchen completely empty, because this food would feed the servants as well. For this reason the oldest person at the meal would give the signal to the servants to remove the plates. The old wives would show as much care at the sofra as they did in the kitchen, taking great pains to abide by palace etiquette in the laying out of the sofra and the orderly arrangement of the dishes. If there was a guest at the meal, the host would be the first to begin eating, but would not get up from the meal before the guest. It was the duty of the çeşnici and kilerci to see to the food service of those invited to the palace. Setting a meal for guests, and serving foods prepared by the kilerci kalfas such as salads and fruit, was the job of the çeşnici kalfas. The çeşnici kalfas waited in attendance to guests from the beginning to the end of the meal (3).

The Dining Etiquette and Habits of the Sultans

The Sultans would arise before dawn and perform their morning prayers, then have breakfast alone in a room by the pantry. The sultan’s noon meal arrived on a tray brought from the kuşhane kitchen. It was the duty of the kilercibaşı to bring this meal, prepare the sofra, remove the covers from the dishes and change the foods. In addition, there were tasters on duty, known as çeşnigir. Dishes served to the sultan were mostly brought on golden platters arranged on a large tray. These platters were also prepared for the sultans’ wives. The tray was wrapped in a cover, and sealed by the kilercibaşı, who tied it with a ribbon. This was a precaution against the poisoning of the sultan and his wives, and was observed until the end. The trays were carried on the heads of the tablakârs, who took them to the harem accompanied by a kilerci. The kilerci walked in front in a dignified and respectful manner without looking right or left, and returned in the same way. They were met at the door to the harem by harem guards (3). The dishes brought for the sultan numbered 24, sometimes as many as 37. The food left after the sultans ate were then taken to the princes and their mothers. According to protocol, they were then given to the odabaşı. Sultans never ate off of silver platters (16).

When a sultan wished to eat, he would tell his kapıağa, or door guard, who would send the order to the sofracı (one responsible for laying the sofra) via a eunuch. He would then bring the foods platter by platter to the sultan’s table. His majesty would sit cross-legged at the sofra and the kapıağa would place a very precious peşkir in order to protect his clothing. A second peşkir, with which he would wipe his mouth and fingers, was placed on his left arm. His food was not cut and prepared as it was for the princes; he did this himself. A sofra spread was laid out in front of him, on which there was always a great variety of fine fresh breads. Two spoons were provided, one for soup and the other sherbets or hoşafs. The dishes were brought in one-by-one and when finished, the plates were removed. No salt was used at the table and there were no appetizers. After meat, baklava or a similar sweet was served without fail. At the end of the meal, he would wash his hands in a golden basin, using a pitcher inlaid with precious stones (17).

Up until the Conquest of Istanbul, sultans ate together with others, but after the Conquest they ate alone. The custom of sultans eating alone continued until the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876), who was the first sultan to dine with Crown Prince Edward VII of England and his family at the same table (16).

Sultan Murat III (1574-1595) had very many children, several of which were three and four years old. Every day exquisite dishes were brought to the sultan, and the leftovers were put on a large tray, with four bowls of hoşaf each, and sent to the princes. A separate sofra was set for each (16).

As Mehmet the Conqueror had stated in his book of statues that “His Imperial Majesty dines alone,” the sultans ate unaccompanied (11). Before that time, Mehmet ate together with scholars. In the palaces of Istanbul and Edirne and in the mansions, he preferred to eat with those who according to protocol must be present, conversing with invited scholars. He did not separate himself from these wise men even during ceremonies and weddings. In 1456 in Edirne, on the occasion of the circumcision of his son prince Mustafa, he invited the most esteemed of the scholars to the celebration. He sat Mevlâna Fahreddin Acemi at his right and Mevlâna Ali Tusi at his left, the remainder sitting to their left and right. Mevlâna Hızır Bey Çelebi and Mevlâna Şükrüllah took their places across from him. As mentioned before, he dined with the scholars but later decreed that he would eat alone. One of the reasons that he decided to eat alone was that eating with the scholars gave rise to unpleasant arguments about who sat at his left or his right (13).

Some of Mehmet the Conqueror’s favorite foods included fried chicken, rice porridge, cheese pide, eggs, spinach pide, mantı, borani, soup, börek, honey, muhallebi, zerde, kaymak, baklava, memune halvah, kadayıf with milk, grape molasses, boza, nardenk and sherbet. There was also a type of ayran with mint and raisins. His favorite nuts and fruits were pears, pomegranates and almonds. In 1473, when Sultan Mehmet went on the Uzun Hasan campaign, he stayed for nine days at Afyonkarahisar. Among the foods he ate while here are wild apricots, fresh lums pears, apples, grapes, vegetables, salad, soup with sour grape molasses, lamb’s head and feet, tarhana with cheese, bread and börek. This information was obtained from records entered into the kitchen registers. No ready-to-eat food was bought other than fruit. Throughout this journey he avoided heavy foods, taking care to eat little and few foods (13).

On days when there was not a meeting of the Divan, the sultan generally went to the royal chamber, where he would pass the time with his bookkeepers and the ladies-in-waiting, read, or engage in his particular interests. One of the places where the sltans sat and entertained themselves daily was the magnificent Hall of the Sultan, located just beyond the Fountain Hall; there was a throne here for him. Sometimes he would stayed at the various kiosks of the palace until evening, perform his evening prayers after eating, and then after the last prayers of the night, retire to his quarters to sleep (11).

In order to learn the people’s opinions of the administration, and secretly learn the doings of the viziers and other statesmen, they would sometimes change their clothing and wander around the city in disguise, sometimes during the day, sometimes at night. We know that while walking in disguise in the market, Osman III bought and ate foods such as gözleme, kebab and leblebi (18).

As Sultan Abdülaziz had a passion for fine food, he expected special dishes from his wives. He had an Black cariye known for her culinary skills brought to the palace. These Black women were know for their skill in making certain foods including a plain meet dolma called emin dolması, eggplant with olive oil, stuffed peppers and various vegetable dishes. The dish we know today as Hünkârbeğendi was prepared by one of these Black women. The sultan enjoyed this dish extremely, thus its name became “Hünkârbeğendi” (Liked by the sultan) and the name has remained unchanged to this day (15).

As the westernization movement in the country gained momentum following the Reform period, the custom was adopted, specifically during the reign of Abdülhamid, of eating in a separate room or hall, sitting on chairs at a table, with separate plates, and with a knife and fork. Everyone also had a separate water glass. Disregarding the palace rules, Abdülhamid II ate his noon and evening meal alone with his favorite wife Müşfika Kadınefendi for twenty years. The fork and knife he used were of pure gold (5).

Concerning the eating habits of her father, Abdülhamid’s daughter Ayşe Osmanoğlu wrote:

My father would retire early, and rise early in the morning, go to the hamam and take his bath. He would then have his breakfast, which was very light. Because of his illness, he would drink powdered senna, mixed with sugar. Ye would drink half a glass of milk mixed with mineral water, followed by coffee and a cigarette. He loved coffee, and only drank coffee from Yemen. In addition to the coffee after meals, he would also order six or seven coffees in between. He drank his coffee with no sugar, neither extremely strong nor light. The coffee was made in the coffee room. The kahvecibaşı put on white gloves and brought the coffee to the door of the harem, rang the bell, and gave it to the guard. The coffee tray was small and of gold; upon it was a silver Turkish coffee pot and two white porcelain cups.

Later he would go to the Harem quarters, and from there into the selamlık (the men’s quarters), sit at his desk and call his head secretary. Here he would work with official matters until about 11:00. When lunch was ready, he would go to the Harem and sit down to eat with my mother. After lunch, he would lie on the chaise lounge and rest for 15-20 minutes. After the evening meal he would go out into the garden and stroll with the generals. During busy times he would remain in the Mabeyn until midnight. With only a few exceptions, during his twenty years as sultan he ate dinner every evening with my mother. In the evening lemonade or a sherbet of currants or pomegranate was taken to his bedroom.

The silverware was gold. It was an old palace custom that lunch was at eleven, and dinner at five. The kilercibaşı in front, followed by the second, third and fourth kilercis, would bring in the tableware which they put in basketweave cases, together with the tablakârbaşı, wearing a short silver embroidered jacket and broad shalvar, and a great tray on his head, would come out of the royal pantries to the courtyard beside the dining room. Here they would place the tray on a folding table, and prepare the dining table. Two guards waited at the door, and the kilercibaşı waited in the waiting room for the food to be laid out. As soon as it was ready, a treasurer would go to my mother and say “Our master wants you.” My mother would go immediately go and sit with my father at the table. Whichever foods on the list my father had chosen would come. As for the foods my father ate the most – for lunch, he would have soft boiled eggs or eggs cooked in butter or an omelet, a lamb cutlet or breaded cutlet. Of fish, he preferred whiting or rockling. Sometimes he had börek, and his favorite sweets were kadayıf with clotted cream, or muhallebi, his favorite western dessert was charlotte. He always ate a light dinner; meat broth, some soups and fruit, of which he preferred strawberries, melon, watermelon and peaches. After the meal, the kilercis would come and clear the table” (19).

Table Etiquette in the Divan

The government of the Ottoman Empire was known as the Divan-ı Hümayun (Royal Council), or Divan for short, and up until the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, was presided over by the sultans. Sultan Mehmet delegated this duty to the Grand Vizier and observed the proceedings of the Divan meetings from an enclosed space known as the kafes (cage). We know that during the reign of Yıldırım Beyazid (1389-1402), Divan meetings were held in the open and in the presence of the people. After Edirne became the capitol, Divan meetings were held in a separate space behind closed doors. After Istanbul was taken and Topkapı Palace built, Divan meetings were held in a special building known as the Divanhane. This building was used until the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566); after this point a building called the Kubbealtı (“under the dome”) was built and the Divan meetings were moved here. The former divanhane was then reserved as a waiting area for ambassadors who were to have an audience with the sultan, and as a place from which to watch ceremonies. After the Grand Vizier, the most important members of the Divan-ı Hümayun were the viziers, who numbered as many as nine, followed by the military judges of Rumeli (the Balkans) and Anatolia (20). While the Divan met daily during the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, from the 16th century on the meetings were reduced to four per week, usually Fridays, Sundays, Mondays and Tuesdays. At the Divan, the first matter of business was issues concerning the people, followed by matters of state. At the Divan, all first- and second-degree governmental, military, administrative, economic and legal matters and disputes were settled (11). The Divan met at a very early hour. On that day, the Janissary Corps and the Mounted Guards would line up in two rows on either side of the Bab-ı Hümayun to meet the members of the Divan. The place where the Grand Vizier sat was half a meter above the surrounding area. On his right, in order of rank, sat the viziers, and on his left, the military judges of Rumeli and Anatolia. In front and to his right was the nişancı, who was responsible for signing the official tuğra, or seal of the Sultan, and to the left, the secretaries. During the summer, fragrant sherbet was ice was served, and in the winter, macun, brought in order of rank. The breaks were announced by the head attendant by hitting the floor with his scepter; upon which the attendants and servants would exit (20).

At this point, one of the servants would request permission from the Grand Vizier to prepare the food. The sofra was set for the Grand Vizier and one or two pashas. As this was being done, the servants would place a peşkir over everyone’s knees (4). If there was a foreign ambassador there, he was always seated at the Grand Vizier’s sofra. Absolutely no guests could sit at the sofra with the military judges (21).

The first meal consisted of meats such as mutton, turkey, pigeon, goose, lamb and chicken. The food was brought in large plates, one food to a plate, and placed on the broad trays. At the same time various fresh breads were brought. This was followed by pilaf, vegetables and sweets, and the meal was enjoyed in a merry atmosphere. The other members of the Divan ate at trays prepared for them and had whatever they desired brought from the kitchens (14). Other foods served included cabbage soup, baklava, borani with spinach and yogurt, lamb head and feet, rice porridge with eggs, yogurt tutmaç, yogurt sweet with grape molasses, chard, ayran and sherbet (13).

The foods were brought one by one; when one dish was eaten it was immediately replaced by the next. The meal finished very quickly and the remaining foods were given to the other divan members (17). The trays for the Grand Vizier and other viziers were prepared by the çaşnigirs, while those of the military judges were set by the muhzurbaşı (a Janissary officer). The mehterbaşı, ekmekçibaşı, the palace kitchen head and steward stood across from the Grand Vizier with their hands folded. At this point the water bearers brought toothpicks and towels and washed the diners’ hands with basins and pitchers. After the meal was finished, sherbet was served in gold-adorned bowls. The chamberlain also brought rose water and the kitchen head, incense, which was brought to everyone in order of rank (21). The other civil servants at the Divan, who numbered at least five hundred, ate soup and bread (14). In addition, everyone else at the Divan — soldiers, civilians, those with lawsuits — were brought food from the kitchen (20).

Mehmet the Conqueror had stated the protocol for meals following the Divan meetings: Divan-ı Hümayun'da makamda vüzerayi azam ile baş defterdar vesair vüzera ile defterdarlar ve nişancılar yerler ve kazaskerler başka yerler. (“At the Imperial Divan, the Grand Viziers eat with the head secretaries, the remaining viziers eat with the secretaries and the nişancıs, and the military judges eat separately”) (13). Thus three trays were laid out in the Divan chamber.

At the first sofra: The Grand Vizier and head secretary (Minister of Finance)

At the second sofra: The Viziers, secretaries and the nişancı

At the third sofra: The military judges.

During the reign of Sultan Mehmet IV (1648-1687), this protocol was changed. With this change, the nişancı and some viziers were included at the Grand Vizier’s table. Thus:

At the first sofra: The Grand Vizier, the head secretary, the nişancı and the second vizier if many viziers were present

At the second sofra: The secretaries of Anatolia and Rumeli

At the third sofra: The military judges.

In both protocols, we notice that the military judges ate separately. The foods given to the Divan members at this meal were not of many varieties, generally one food in sufficient quantity to satisfy them (13).

Ceremony for the Distribution of the Janissaries Ulufe

Once every three months, the Janissary Corps and other military classes were paid their salaries, called ulufe, in a special ceremony. If there was a newly-arrived ambassador present, the ulufe distribution ceremony was more ostentatious. After watching this ceremony, the ambassadors were accepted for an audience with the sultan (20).

On the day the ulufe was to be paid, the Divan would meet, with the Grand Vizier and other high-ranking statesmen in the Kubbealtı and the sultan on his throne, to witness the ceremony. The Divan placed the ulufe, recorded in the books for each corps, into a leather purse. While this was taking place, soup, pilaf and zerde was placed before the Sultan’s court (18). As the Divan was assembling, the Grand Vizier would greet the members of the Divan on his right and left before taking his seat, and after sitting, say “Sabahınız hayrola” (an elevated form of “good morning”). At this point, as required by the old law and as a sign of the military’s good intent and allegiance, the Janissary general would distribute candy to the members of the Divan, beginning with the Grand Vizier and continuing in order of rank, and everyone partook. This was called “akide şekeri” (lit. “good faith/allegiance candy”); the same name is still used today for this traditional hard candy.

At this point, the chamberlain in the Kubbealtı would at the appointed time make a sign with the skirt of his uniform, upon which the Janissaries waiting at the Middle Gate would run like lightning and eat the food laid out before the Sultan’s court. Following this, a sacrificial sheep was slaughtered. During this distribution of wages, there were times when the Janissaries did not eat the food, in order to make certain demands known. The sacrifice of the sheep was a celebration of the understanding that the Janissaries had not rebelled (18).

At the end of the meal, the Janissaries again withdrew to the Middle Gate and stood, then took their leather purses and departed. In addition to their wages, the Janissaries received meat, bread, bulgur and clarified butter, and rice on Fridays. Every day they received 100 dirhems of meat and 50 dirhems each of bulgur and clarified butter (rice on Friday nights instead of bulgur). Every Janissary unit had a çorbacı (literally “soupmaker”), who was a commandant. However in this context, the word did not mean an officer who made soup. Just as the Janissaries, in order to praise the bread and blessings bestowed to them by the sultan, called their own organizations “hearths,” they called their officers either çorbacı or aşçı usta (master chef). They called their kettles Kazan-i Şerif (Honorable Kettle) and showed more respect to it than to their flags. When they staged an uprising, the term kazan kaldırmak (to pick up the kettle) meant “to revolt” (22).

Among the Janissaries, the distribution of soup was carried out in a special way. For security in Istanbul’s neighborhoods, sufficient officers from the Janissary corps were sent to one or several gendarme stations in the various quarters. Every morning an officer known as the baş karakollukçu (head gendarmerie officer) would bring a large iron soup ladle and behind him, two Janissaries would bring the soup kettle hung from a pole they carried on their shoulders, and in this way would ladle out the soup (22).

Feasts Given for Foreign Ambassadors

During the Ottoman period, foreign ambassadors entering the boundaries of a country were considered the guests of that country, and the costs for his sustenance were covered by the host country. Ottoman sultans gave various gifts to the ambassadors’ countries upon their return. In the same way, the ambassadors also brought various gifts to the sultan, the Grand Vizier and the upper heads of state (23).

In 1530, Hungarian King Ferdinand I sent Joseph Von Lamberg and Niclas Jurischitz as ambassadors to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The ambassadors were invited to the palace on November 14, 1530 at eight o’clock, and before their meeting with the sultan, they and their knights were served a meal at the palace. Seventy-two different dishes were brought to the hall, and seven dishes came to each group of two or three people; thus a rich feast had been provided according to the demands of tradition. According to protocol, four different tables were set (24).

First table: Four pashas (Ibrahim, Kasım, Ayas and Hadim Paşa) and the two ambassadors sat at a silver table.

Second table: The two highest-ranking clergy men were seated at a silver table.

Third table: Here at the sultan’s highest-ranking registrar.

Fourth table:  Here sat the sultan’s four chamberlains.

During the meal, sherbet was served to the guests. After the meal, the four chamberlains took the ambassadors to the hall in which the Sultan was waiting, and there they remained for half an hour. The Sultan gave the ambassadors ten thousand akçes (small silver coins), two gold items each, various items of silver, shawls and candles (24).

The first fully-authorized sent by Queen Elizabeth of England was Edward Bardon, and his ambassador’s report states that he ate one hundred different dishes at the palace and drank rose sherbet (14). When Edward Barton was welcomed at the palace in 1595 during the reign of Mehmet III, he left his home and boarded a boat with seven men dressed in silk under silver thread embroidered suits as well as forty assistants, at the short he was met by two generals and forty to fifty sergeants, who brought the ambassador and his men horses. Upon coming to the palace, the ambassador was greeted by the Grand Vizier, who took the letter from Her Majesty. They then entered the banquet room. Hundreds of dishes of food had been prepared, most of which were grilled or simmered. Forty or fifty people were charged with the serving of the food. They were given water mixed with rosewater and sugar (sherbet) to drink. If the serving of the food, which took half an hour, was conducted silently and in an orderly fashion; the gathering of the dishes was equally noisy and disorganized (9).

Petis de Crois, a member of the French mission to Istanbul, greatly enjoyed the dishes he ate at the table of Sultan Mehmet IV in 1674. Among the dishes included in this feast were various seasonal salads with rose petals, lamb and chicken kebabs brought in dishes called “martaban,” pigeons fried in butter and onion, then baked with kaymak, sugar and rosewater, various types of fish, stuffed chicken and meat-stuffed grape leaves, soups, pilafs, böreks, tavuk göğsü (a sweet milk pudding) made with the breasts of capons, almond baklava, apples and pears baked with musk and ambergris, cherry pudding, hoşafs and sherbets (25).

Among the memoirs of John Covel, secretary to Sir Daniel Harvey, who served for seven years (1670-1677) as English ambassador, was a section regarding the feast served to them after they were received by Mehmet IV on July 27, 1675 in Edirne (26):

Basins, pitchers and towels were brought. The Grand Vizier, the Registrar, the Nişancı and my lord (the ambassador) washed their hands. Each had their own servant. Later, small round tables, identical one to another, were carried in. One of these was covered with cloth, and the others with leather, after which bread was distributed among the tables. Small wooden spoons were laid on the tables. First, small bowls with olives, parsley and dill were brought. To these were added pickles, brine, salt and pepper. The three tables reserved for the Grand Vizier, the Registrar and the Nişancı were set in the same way. At the Grand Vizier’s table a place was reserved for the ambassador. At the table of the nişancı sat Mr. North (Treasurer) and Mr. Hyet (financial attahe); Mr. Cook and I sat at the table of the Registrar. The other merchants and gentlemen were hosted in another room, some of them sitting at the table of the Reisül-Küttab and others at the Çavuşbaşı’s table. The table where we sat was treated equally. Twenty plates of meat were brought one by one. When one plat was finished, the next was brought and distributed in an orderly manner with no loss of time. The serving of the dishes was so organized that due to the skill of those serving the separate tables, all of the tables finished at the same time. In place of napkins there were towels placed in our laps; these were to wipe our hands with. There was smaller but higher quality version of this towel; this had been provided for us to wipe our mouths and beards.

The dishes served at this meal were, in order of service: chicken with mushrooms and no sauce, roasted on a spit; fried pigeon (it may have been partridge), fried spicy kebab, vine leaves stuffed with meat and rice (etli yaprak sarma), soup with rice and wheat, pilaf with chicken, another very delicious dish for which no name was given, another pilaf with pine nuts (iç pilav), raisin hoşaf, baked börek filled with bits of meat (talaş böreği), then a delicious milk pudding (sütlaç or muhallebi), a dessert sweetened with honey, and large pitchers of lemonade and sherbets to quench the thirst. Covel states that the meat dishes were eaten with the hands (26). Ottoman feasts were certain to include several types of meat, sherbet, and both milk-based and baked sweets.

David, an Italian ambassador to Selim II. says that meals were eaten with silver utilsils; French ambassador Comte de Castellene who came in 1741 informs us that Seladon China service which changed color if the food was poisoned was used (18). At a feast given for the Russian ambassador in 1776 by Mustafa Ağa, the assistant to the Grand Vizier, at his palace on the Bosphorus, seventy different dishes were served on silver platters (27).

The English naval officer Adolphus Slade, who came to Turkey in the early 19th century, was served a banquet by the Commandant of the Ottoman fleet. This feast was eaten on a sofra set up between two cannons on the deck of a warship cruising the Black Sea. The feast included twelve dishes, from fried red mullet to chicken, meat with pilaf and hoşaf (25).

A feast held for an English Admiral on June 14, 1912 included the following dishes (14):

Cold meat broth
Sea bass
Young duck with pilaf
Cold grilled lamb with liver
Asparagus
Chicken kebab
Salad
Keşkülü fukara (a milk pudding made with bitter almonds and pistachios)
Ice cream
Fruit
Şekerleme (could be one of several different sweets)

Feasts Held for Heads of State Visiting the Palace

After his tour of Europe, Sultan Abdülaziz desired to have what he saw in the palaces there and the feasts that were held for him to be instituted in the Ottoman palaces as well. Very proud, and a lover of ostentation, it was he who had the Çirağan, Beylerbeyi and Küçüksu palaces built. But there were no personnel suitable to provide the kind of service he was in the European palaces, and acquiring such personnel would take time. Sultan Abdülaziz was thinking about how he would host the Empress of France, the Emperor of Austria or the Crown Prince of Prussia, who he had invited to Istanbul. Cooks and pasty chefs and been brought from France for these guests. At the same time his sofracıbaşı Marko was making regular trips to Paris. Tables and service were rented for the guests, and reparations were paid for broken or cracked items. Bonets, robes and jackets had been bought for the kitchen orderlies and he had forty suits sewn bye the tailor Lori, for those who would serve the guests. He had also hired additional personnel for the palace kitchen for these guests – cooks and assistants, candlemakers, ward boys and coffee makers. He also brought three chefs, bakers and pastry chefs from Europe (14).

The first great feast in Dolmabahçe Palace was given in honor of Bulgarian King Ferdinand and his wife. Everyone invited to this feast wore their uniforms. The women were dressed in fine gowns and glittering jewelry. Only Ali Rıza Bey, President of the Meclisi Mebusan (Legislature) wore a suit coat. Although the queen was present at the feast, the sultan’s harem was not there. The Queen was able to visit the Kadınefendi (wife of the sultan) only by going herself to the harem. Gold-plated tableware was used at the feast, enough sets for twelve dozen people. Eight different dishes could be served without being washed(3).

The guests were met by royal wards dressed in red trousers, silver thread embroidered jackets and a crested cap. The orchestra wore white trousers and red jackets. The sultan met the king queen at the mounting block, after which the orchestra played the Bulgarian and Turkish anthems. It was a dazzling spectacle, from the candles in the chandeliers to the gold-filled candelabras and table service, the guests’ silver embroidered suites and their jewelry. The feast lasted two hours, after which the guests entered the great hall. The sultan sat on an armchair and paid his respects to the guests one by one, and coffee was served (3).

Ceremonies and Celebrations for Princes’ Circumcisions

In the Ottman Empire, celebrations were held for such events as the birth, circumcision and marriage of princes and the sultan’s campaigns. We observe that at these celebrations, the sultan and high ranking statesmen mixed with the common people. Royal celebrations were an important part of the lives of people during that period. As in Renaissance Europe, these celebrations were not held only behind the walls of the palace but rather took place with the participation of the people as well. Thus with their ceremonies, rules of conduct, order and feasts, such celebrations are important events in Turkish cultural history (28).

During the early Ottoman periods, birth celebrations were not common. Up until the time of Murat II, we see that celebrations, whatever the occasion, were more modest. The dazzling and ostentations celebrations were more of a display of power, and emerged during the stagnation and decline of the Empire. However the first great celebration was staged in 1457 by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror in Edirne on the occasion of his sons’ circumcisions. Other great celebrations of importance which took place in later years were held by Suleyman the Magnificent in 1530, Murat II in 1582, Mehmet IV in 1675 and Ahmet III in 1720 (28).

The most important celebration of a birth was that held in honor of Mehmet IV’s son Mustafa (Mustafa II), held in 1663; this event was celebrated in various regions of the Empire. In 1758, the celebration in honor of the birth of Hibetullah Sultan was arranged to last seven days and seven nights, but due to the people’s enthusiasm, was extended three days more to last ten days. Hundreds of master performers took part in the festivities, with richly outfitted celebrations, parades and theatre performances held in various parts of Istanbul. The most significant occasions for great celebrations by sultans were the circumcisions and marriages of princes (28). The wedding of Grand Vizier Kanijeli İbrahim Paşa to Murat III’s daughter Ayşe Sultan was carried out in grand style. The wedding celebration lasted eight days, with Ayşe Sultan moving into her husband’s palace on the 9th day. The wedding was celebrated with great pomp and circumstance; it took 300 people to carry the gifts given by the Captain of the Navy; and at the head of a procession including the Janissary Ağa and a particular Governor General were fifty loads of gifts. Among these was a great cake, carried by sailors, in the shape of a castle. Among the items in Ayşe Sultan’s dowry were fifty loads of dining room and kitchen sets. A great many feasts were held during the course of the wedding; and after the princess came to the palace, another great feast was held for İbrahim Paşa, the generals, viziers and other high-ranking officers (29).

The greatest of the circumcision celebrations was that held by Murat III in Istanbul, which lasted for fifty-five days. Rulers from around the world were invited, and those who were unable to attend sent their ambassadors. This was the largest celebration, held in the 16th century, was the largest celebration ever held in the world (28).

This circumcision celebration was held in three different sections for the morning, afternoon and evening. Beginning on May 29, 1582, it end on July 21 1582. Two meals were served every day to the people and guests with the sultan and his family, heads of state, invited guests and common people eating at separate sofras. For detailed information about this celebration, see (30).

On Sunday, June 10, a breakfast was served to the people This breakfast included boiled chicken and turkey, fried mutton, lamb, various pilafs, a type of çörek with honey, various sweets and sherbet. After the people were served, there was a series of performances and in the evening, fireworks.

On the morning of Monday, June 11, a meal was served to four thousand cavalry soldiers and their officers under great tents. The evening meal was eaten on straw mats, and consisted of rice pilaf on bread, with veal. This meal was served to the common people as well.

On Wednestay, June 13, a feast was held for up to three thousand army personal and artillerymen under the tents. In the evening the daily meal was also served to the people.

On Friday, June 16, over five thousand guests including the General of the Navy and sailors, were fed in the tents. As there was not a great amount of food, it was all finished.

On Monday, June 18, following a feast served to four thousand people, there were various shows, and another meal following the shows.

On Friday, July 7, Mehmet Paşa took the prince into a room, and in the presence of three witnesses, the prince was circumcised. The prince was put in a beautifully-prepared bed. They then informed the sultan, who gave fine presents to the doctor who performed the circumcision. The celebration lasted all day and all night.

An unparalleled celebration was also held upon the beginning of Mahmut II’s son Abdülmecid’s education. This celebration was held in 1832, in the İbrahim Ağa meadows near Kadıköy, and lasted three days. Tents were set up in the meadow for the occasion, and twenty-four thousand soldiers were called in to maintain order. The celebration drew nearly one hundred fifty thousand people. The sultan put his son into the charge of his teachers with a ceremony. To the sultan’s right were the sheikh-ul Islam and the palace teachers; and to his left, high-ranking state officials, and before the throne were the Army commanders and the Navy general. At the conclusion of the ceremony, various types of entertainment was held with the participation of the people (28).

With the exception of the great celebrations held in 1765 in Edirne by Mehmet IV, all of the celebrations from the 16th century on were held in Istanbul. The largest celebration held by Murat II during this period was in 1450, on the occasion of his son Mehmet’s wedding. This celebration included feasts and performances, as well as literary meetings, poetry was read and folk performances were held. Known as the longest wedding in Ottoman history, this celebration lasted three months (28).

Mehmet the Conqueror had his sons Beyazid and Mustafa Çelebi brought to Edirne for their circumcision, and to the celebration he invited the greatest scholars of the time, their lords, and the people of Edirne. The celebration included rich theatrical performances and displays of fireworks, as well as marksmanship, archery, horsemanship competitions and horse races. The most loved part was the evening fireworks, rockets and lamps. This rich display was repeated every night for a period. As in the ostentatious later celebrations, this celebration also included masterfully created sugar figures. It is safe to say that with the feasts, gift giving and performances, protocol at these feasts followed the same order as that of later sultan’s celebrations. The ceremonies proceeded as follows (28):

First day: Discussions among scholars
Second day: Reception of the sheikhs by the sultan
Third day: War games and sporting events
Fourth day: Gifts, feasts and sweets for the common people

In 1675, Sultan Mehmet IV had his elder son Mustafa (Mustafa II) and Ahmet (Ahmet III) circumcised in Edirne. This circumcision ceremony began on Sunday, May 14, 1675 and ended on Monday, May 29, lasting a total of fifteen days. Preparations for the celebration began in late 1674, and took six months working day and night. For the feasts, Hüseyin Ağa of Merzifon was brought from Istanbul and appointed head chef, and was given 150 palace chefs and 300 provincial chefs as assistants. A total of one hundred people were chosen to distribute coffee, sherbet and incense.

Prior to the festivities, 37,000 chickens, 5,000 geese and 6,000 ducks were brought. The kitchen utensils procured included 4000 wooden eating trays, 2000 platters, 200 large platers, 1,100 new platters borrowed from the merchants of Edirne, 30 large cauldrons, 3,000 mevlit plats, 7,000 plates, 1,500 storage jars, 1,600 glass plates and 3.000 china plates.

A han was rented from the Sultan Selim for the making of the necessary nahıls (richly ornamented figures made of beeswax and other materials for certain celebrations), candies and other items required for the wedding. After much work, the large and small nahıls, candies, sugar figures etc. were ready. Two large nahıls and forty small ones were made for the celebration. This work required 200 candy makers, 150 nahıl makers and around 50 assistants.

The area chosen for the festivities was a broad area in front of the Edirne palace which was once known as the Cirit Meydanı (“Javelin Square”). Seven pavilion tents were set up in this area, some of them for the sultan and prince Mustafa, and the rest for the viziers, the sheikh and other statesmen. In front of these pavilions were decorated awnings in the shape of a half moon for the men to watch the performances. Next to the sultan’s pavilion, was a feast tent set up for the guests. Former palace halberdiers stood by the feast tends giving sherbet, coffee and incense. At the right side of the half-moon shaped tent was a circumcision tend for the commoners’ children. This was across from the royal ovens (28).

The day’s program for the 1675 circumcision celebraton:

1. The Grand Vizier or other viziers with him, along with other invited guests, enter the divanhane pavilion.

2. A feast was give to the people of the pavilion whose turn it was.

3. The halberdiers distributed sherbet, coffee and incense

4. The sultan and statesmen rest

5. Giving of gifts

6. Spectator sports and dramatic performances

7. Fireworks, dance and theatrical performances.

On some days, if there were a large number of gifts, the giving of these began before the meal, and continued afterwards.

At the circumcision celebration:

1st day: Early on Sunday, the Grand Vizier, viziers, high ranking judges and guards, the sheikh and hodjas came to the Imperial Divan pavilion and awaited the sultan, who emerged from the harem and sat at the throne. The mehter band in front of the Divanhane began to play. According to rank, hands were kissed, and the ceremony ended. Getting up from his throne, the sultan came to the imperial pavilion. Then sofras were set and everyone sat to eat. A separate sofra was set for the Grand Vizier. Official word was sent to the Janissaries as well, who at their food quickly.

On the 2nd through 15th days, meals were given for all the officials and officers of various ranks as well as the local sheikhs, military, Janissary corps and others. The circumcision was held on the 12th day, along with 200 children from Edirne. On the last day, a feast was provided for the people of Edirne, including foreigners who happened to be there at the time.

The meals included large amounts of pilaf and zerde. There were sugar figures in the shapes of nightingales, lions, peacocks, deer and camels. In addition to these were akide candy as well. Foreigners who had come to Edirne for the festivities were received with great hospitality (28).

Ottoman celebrations began in the early morning hours and continued until midnight. The mornings were devoted mainly to ceremonies, gift giving and feasts, after which coffee, sherbet and incense was distributed, and everyone rested. In the early evening the shows began. These celebrations included fire dancers, magicians, pyrotechnics, acrobats, and various other displays of talent and entertainment.

Ramadan Customs at the Palace

Beyond its religious and social significance, the month of Ramadan is extremely significant in terms of our cultural history. In the Ottoman Empire and in Istanbul in the capitol Istanbul, iftar meals, visits, the time before sahur, and sahur were all set by strict rules and nothing was happenstance. How the fast should be broken and what foods would be at the table were all dictated by special rules. When Ramadan arrived, days at the Ottoman palaces and the harem proceeded at a more active pace than before. Residence of the palace and harem kept the fast, and those who were literate recited the entire Koran.

At the palace, the most important starter dish during Ramadan were eggs with onions. After the foods and trays were collected, the kitchen officer would bring water laced with incense and give it to the Grand Vizier first, followed by other viziers and members of the Divan. After the meals, the giving of incense water and sherbet were some of the most notable customs of the palace. The incense water was made by boiling sandalwood, myrrh, wormwood, nigella seed, sesame root, musk, orange and rose water and other fragrant materials in water for a certain interval. When the water was strained, there was a white portion which was given to the sultan, and the remainder was served to the other statesmen in bottles and bowls with and without gold leaf. It was customary to give a gift to the one who served it. To sent incense water to a statesmen of the palace served as an invitation to the Hırka-i Saadet ceremony (In which the cloak of the Prophet was viewed), held on the 15th day of Ramadan (31).

From the 15th day of Ramadan on began the invitations to iftar (the evening meal marking the breaking of the fast) at the palaces and mansions. Before iftar, the light foods for the initial breaking of the fast, known as iftariyelik, were set out. These included dates, olives, cheeses, preserves and pickles. When the cannon fired, indicating the official time for iftar, a short prayer and blessing was recited, and the feast was broken with a sip of zemzem water from Mecca. Then one would eat a date, followed by Ramadan pide (a special rich bread made for the month) together with the iftariyelik. Following the evening prayer, the meal would begin. The Ramadan feast began with soup, followed by various foods, and ended with a sweet (5).

Abdülhamit’s daughter Ayşe Osmanoğlu gave the following information about Ramadan in the palace:

Ramadan in the palace was wonderful; the preparations began a week beforehand. Various syrups and several different iftariyelik came in large pitchers from the palace kitchen, and were sent to all the apartments. On the first night of Ramadan, gold-leafed folding screens were set up around the tables in every apartment, prayer rugs were set out, and prayers were performed. At night, the doors were opened, the sahur (pre-dawn meal) were brought in, and when the cannon fired, everyone stood up. In the evening when the cannon went off, the fast was broken with zemzem water, the iftariye were set out, and everyone drank iced lemonade and syrups. There was a syrup made of fragrant jonquils made only at the palace, which was very delicious. Those who came to the inner palace received a gift from the Başmabeynci. Every evening a battalion of soldiers would have iftar in Yıldız Square, perform their prayers and then pass out Ramadan gifts. On the Night of Power, the 27th night of Ramadan, there was a great procession. Before prayers, we headed out in the harem carriages, with that of the Mother of the Sultan in front, and stopped in the yard of Hamidiye Mosque. After the sultan entered the mosque, all the soldiers were given large cheese pides and delicious sherbets from the palace kitchen. Rockets were fired from Yıldız Square until the prayers were over (19).

From the reign of Abdülmecid on, cooks prepared the iftar dishes in secret, as if they were in competition with each other, and wrote their names on papers which they attached to the cloths covering the food trays. The sultan tasted the various dishes, and if he liked the eggs with onions, he would choose the chef who prepared the dish as his own head chef. The onions for eggs with onions were cooked very slowly in oil without browning, until they darkened in color; this process took 3 to 3 ½ hours (27).

Two different kinds of meals were set at Ramazan, one Turkish and one with with western dishes. At the Turkish style meal, diners sat around a wide copper tray. The sultans of old gave gifts wrapped in red silk pouches to those coming to iftar at the palace, in order of their rank. This was called diş kirası. A similar custom was practiced at the mansions (3). The diş kirasıgiven to those in need consisted more of money while for wealthy people a precious gift of some sort was preferred (32). During the serving of coffee, cigarettes and sherbet, there was a silver tray containing golden watches with or without enameling, and gold plates, with the names of those invited on a piece of paper. After these were handed out one by one, the guests got in their carriages and left the palace (3). In Istanbul during the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, one Grand Vizier, Mahmut Paşa, after whom a quarter is named, always prepared his guests a “pilav with chickpeas” which contained “chickpeas” made of gold. When someone came upon one of the chickpeas while eating the pilaf, that was considered his diş kirası. While during the 19th century, during the reigns of Sultans Abdülmecid and Abdülaziz, the wealthy continued the tradition of giving diş kirası to each other, Sultan Abdülhamid II continued this tradition more for the poor (32).

From the 19th to the 20th centuries, the procession for the Night of Power was held in the courtyards of Nusretiye Mosque in Tohpane, which was commissioned by Abdülmecid, and the Hamidiye Mosque in Yıldız, commissioned by Abdülhamid II. That night, the Mosque area was decorated with colorful lanterns and the courtyard was transformed into a world of light. For night fell, the wives and princesses in the harem would get into two horse-drawn carriages which would stand in their designated places in the courtyard. The would not get out of the carriages, and the curtains remained drawn. To each carriage, the harem guards would bring iftariye, food and fruit on silver trays, ice cream if it were summer, and would serve coffee (10).

During Ramadan, statesmen would serve the iftar meal to each other according to their ranks. Every Ramadan, a list of those to be invited was prepared and announced. On these announcements everyone was informed when he would come. During this month, the sultan wished to remain alone, and the Grand Viziers would send delicious food to him (21).

On the 20th night of Ramadan, the Janissary officer and his corp were invited to an iftar meal given by the Grand Vizier, and two tables were laid out in the audience hall. At the first table sat the Grand Vizier and the higher ranking Janissaries; and at the second sat the lower ranking officers (21).

The two other corps officers ate at two sofras set up in the guest room.

On the 26th day of Ramadan, it was the custom for the Grand Vizier to go to the sheikh to offer wishes for the upcoming Bayram (Feast of Ramadan). From the 26th on, all the statesmen would go to offer their Bayram wishes to each other, in the order dictated by protocol. This lasted three to four days. On the first day of Bayram, following prayers, the Janissary Corps first came to the palace, and stood in respect at a spot near the Middle Gate. The sultan, together with the viziers and other statesmen, came through the Middle Gate and then returned to his quarters, after which the Janissaries went to eat soup. Coffee and sweets were also eaten during the course of Bayram greetings.

On the Ramadan Bayram of 1739, according to the old order, the Grand Vizier and the sultan on his throne received Ramadan greetings in the Kubbe-i Hümayun, following which a meal was eaten. The Jannisaries ate pilaf and zerde.

The feast served to the deputies in the inner palace on Friday, July 24 1912 included 1 okka (1.28 kilograms) of caviar, 1 okka of Dutch chees, 2 okkas of Balkan kaşar cheese and 5 okkas of string cheese. The iftar menu that day was (14):

Çubuk börek
Roasted lamb
Red mullet in paper
Cold chicken
Asparagus
Pilaf with tomatoes
Pistachio and strawberry ice cream
Almond muhallebi

During the World War I, food became scarce in the Ottoman Empire, and this affected the palace cuisine as well. Certain strictures were applied to the distribution of food on trays. Trays which contained chicken would not include meat in the evenings, only chicken; those which did not include chicken would include meat in the evenings. Thus the foods served for iftar were 1 soup, one egg, two vegetables, one pilaf, 1 sweet, and 1 iftariye. The sahur contained 1 meat, 1 vegetable, 1 pilaf, 1 börek and 1 hoşaf.

In Ramadan 1914, the menu for iftar meal served to the governors was (7):

Asparagus soup
Sigara böreği
Roast chicken
Ratatouille
Pilav scented with ambergris
Keşkül-ü fukara
Fruit

 The Kırka-i Şerif Visitation Ceremony

Every year on the 15th day of Ramadan, the Hırka-i Şerif (the mantle of the Prophet Muhammed, which is kept in the palace as a relic) was viewed; all the statesmen took their places according to protocol, headed by the sultan. One day prior to the visitation day, letters of invitation were written and sent by the chamberlain. First the Holy Koran was read. Following this, the sultan would open the chest in which the cloak was kept and was allowed to brush it over his face. After this ceremony, it was customary to serve baklava to the Janissaries and other corpsmen. The kitchen officer, the head chef and other kitchen staff distributed baklava, recorded in the registers, to every corps (21). Before the Janissaries were abolished by Mahmut II, a pan of baklava prepared in the palace kitchens was presented to the sultan, and one pan for each ten Janissaries. The pans prepared for the Janissaries were taken to their rooms in a ceremony in which each pan was carried by two Janissaries. The next day the pans and the futa (cloth in which they were wrapped) were returned to the palace (27).

After the sultans moved their official residence to Dolmabahçe Palace, an official procession was held for the viewing of the cloak. That day, they broke their fast in Topkapı Palace.

The Ceremony for the Sending of the Sürre-i Hümayun

The ceremony, held on the 12th day of the month of Recep, in which money and gifts were sent from the Palace to Medina and Mecca, was known as the Sürre-i Hümayun. For this ceremony, an official letter was first sent by the harem lord to the registrar, the head librarian and the nişancı to inform them. On the day of the ceremony, everyone took their places according to protocol. At this point coffee and sweets were served. Afterwards the the Sürre-i Hümayun register received the seal of the harem lord, followed by those of the harem inspector, and signed by the registrar. After the seals and the adding of the tuğra, the official seal of the sultan, sherbet and incense water was drunk, and later everyone ate a meal together (21).

Kandil

Another group days of religious significance in Turkey are the kandils, which commemorate the Prophet Muhammed’s conception, his birth, the revelation of the Koran and his ascent into the heavens. The kandils were a time of great activity. The sultan sent invitations for the kandil, statesmen and clergy came to the palace and were taken into a hall prepared for the kandil, where they greeted the sultan, who was standing. The princes and crown prince took their places next to the sultan. If there were screened places there for the women they would sit there; if not, screens would be moved to enclose one section of the hall. The women in the palace, princesses, princesses from outside the palaces and other women invited would sit on cushions placed there for them (10).

As the Mevlüt was being chanted, the attendants were sprinkled with rose water, and candy was passed around in fine bowls. When the Mevlüt was over, the sultan would stand, and the guests would immediately leave the hall. The sultan would go from there to the harem, where he would receive the greetings of the women of the harem. When the greeting ceremony concluded, he would stand next to his mother and they would speak for a bit. During this time, the wards distributed sherbet to all present (10).

The menu for the feast given for the deputies in the palace for Kandil on June 9, 1912 was (7):

Sigara böreği
Red mullet in paper
Meat baked in a jug
Ratatouille
Roast chicken
Göveç pilaf
Strawberry cream
Ice cream
Fruit

Nevruz

As Nevruz (spring equinox) was the first day of spring, a special candy was prepared at the palace pharmacy (Eczane-i Hümayun) called Nevruz macunu. It was red, and sprinkled with gold dust. This candy was put into ornate bowls tied in tulle, and distributed to the members of the dynasty, the viziers, and high state officials of various ranks. Eating this delicious candy in the morning on an empty stomach was considered curative. In addition, the nevruz macunu was placed in silver trays, along with seven foods, the names of which began with the letter “S.” These foods were susam, süt, simit, su, salep, safran and sarımsak (sesame, milk, bread rings, water, sahlab, saffron and garlic). It was commonly believed that eating a piece of each of these would bring good health to the eater (19).

One Nevruz, Abdülhamit II received a gift from Iran of macun and Iranian style sweets, in fine porcelain and decorated boxes. On the Nevruz candies the name of Abdülhamit II was written in gold (19).

The Month of Muharrem

On the tenth day of Muharrem, aşure was cooked at the palaces. This aşure was brought to the palace apartments in jugs and sent to all the members of the dynasty. In addition, the aşure made at the palace was distributed to the poor, as well as to the soldiers and all the barracks. Just as aşure was sent from the palace to the lodges of the religious orders (tekkes), the tekkes also sent aşure to the palace. Military commanders and great families also sent aşure to the palace, in fine jugs tied with tulle, these were emptied and filled with aşure made at the palace and returned. This was a traditional practice at the palace (19).

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